Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)

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 Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a medical condition related to a woman’s endocrine system. Generally, this disorder is characterised by an imbalance of the sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone), which leads to the development of multiple small cysts in the ovaries. Symptoms of PCOS include acne, irregular menstrual cycle and depression to name a few.

The causes of PCOS have not been accurately identified so far, but researchers suggest that the following factors might contribute to the onset of the condition.

1. Increased amount of insulin secretion- Women suffering from insulin resistance may get PCOS as their body is not able to effectively use this insulin, which results in increased insulin secretion by the pancreas. This, in turn, triggers more androgen (male sex hormone) production in the ovaries, making it difficult for the ovaries to ovulate.

2. Lower inflammation levels- The white blood cells present in your body form resistance against infections through a response termed as inflammation. Women with lower inflammation levels are likelier to get PCOS as the decreased levels stimulate polycystic ovaries, thereby producing more androgens.

3. Genetic factor- If you have a family history of PCOS, it’s highly probable that you may also get it as the disease is linked with your genes.

 PCOS comes with numerous side effects like acne, obesity, infertility, excessive facial or body hair among others. There are certain lifestyle changes, which you may consider to manage PCOS and minimise its side effects.

1. Change your diet - Opt for a low carbohydrate, low sugar diet to keep your insulin levels in control, as insulin is responsible for increasing the severity of PCOS symptoms.

2. Try to maintain an ideal body weight - Obesity is known for worsening insulin resistance, and you can prevent this by regularly keeping your weight in check. You can practice some easy at-home exercise to reduce weight besides having a balanced diet.

3. Get yourself checked regularly - Visit a doctor and get yourself checked regularly for potential health risks as PCOS is often associated with increased chances of diabetes, heart diseases, certain forms of cancer, hypertension, and high LDL (bad) cholesterol levels.

The Health Benefits of Spinach

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 Spinach ranks at the top for nutrient richness. It contains a wealth of vitamins and minerals and is also concentrated in health-promoting phytonutrients such as carotenoids (beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthanin) and flavonoids - all of which provide us with powerful antioxidant protection.

Nutritional Breakdown of Spinach

This is what 1 cup of spinach will provide you with: 839 milligrams of potassium per cooked cup (more than a banana, which contains about 539mg). A fantastic source of iron (6.4mg).  A lack of iron affects how efficiently your body uses energy. A great source of dietary magnesium (24 milligrams). This nutrient is essential for energy metabolism. Magnesium also maintains muscle and nerve function, heart rhythm, a healthy immune system and maintains blood pressure. It also contains vitamin K, fiber, phosphorous and thiamine. 27 calories

How to Select and Store Spinach Spinach should have vibrant, dark green leaves and stems with no signs of yellowing. The leaves should look fresh and should not be wilted and bruised. Leaves with a slimy coating should be avoided as this indicates decay. To store this leafy veg, place it in a plastic storage bag and wrap it tightly, squeezing the air out as much as possible, then place it in the refrigerator and consume within 5 days. Cooked spinach should not be stored as it will not keep very well. The Health Benefits of Spinach Helps in overcoming anemia: Spinach is a great source of iron - a mineral that is essential in preventing anemia. Half a cup of spinach contains 3.2mg of iron which accounts for about 20 percent of the iron requirement for a woman's body. Helps prevent asthma: Studies have shown that people who consume high amounts of certain nutrients - including beta-carotene (an antioxidant) have a lower risk for developing asthma. And spinach is an excellent source of such a nutrient. Helps lower blood pressure: Research has shown that a diet low in potassium may be just as much of a contributing factor to high blood pressure as a diet high in sodium. Spinach contains high levels of potassium which helps negate the effects of sodium in the body. Promotes bone health: Spinach contains a wealth of Vitamin K, which research suggests is beneficial for maintaining bone health. Spinach is also an excellent source of bone supporting nutrients including calcium and magnesium. Has anti-cancer properties: Spinach contains high levels of phytonutrient content (including flavonoids and carotenoids) that function as anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer agents. In fact, studies have shown that spinach may slow down cell division in human stomach cancer cells and may reduce the risk of skin cancer.  An excellent source of antioxidant nutrients: Due to its excellent source of antioxidant nutrients - including vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A and manganese, and its fantastic source of the antioxidant zinc, and selenium, spinach helps lower the risk of numerous health problems related to oxidative stress. Promotes regularity: Spinach is high in fiber and water content, both of which help prevent constipation and promote a healthy digestive tract. Promotes healthy skin and hair: Spinach is a great source of vitamin A - a nutrient necessary for sebum production to keep hair moisturized. Like other leafy greens, spinach is high in vitamin C, which helps build and maintain collagen, providing structure to the skin. Reduces risk of cataracts: Spinach contains lutein and zeaxanthin, both of which act as a strong antioxidant, which help prevent the eyes from the harsh effects of UV rays which can lead to cataracts. Reduces the likelihood of developing ulcers: It has been found that spinach has the ability to protect the mucous membrane of the stomach, decreasing the occurrence of gastric ulcers. Spinach has also been shown to boost the strength of the digestive tract lining, preventing inflammation in that part of the body which may cause harm.

Gut neurons help prevent tissue over-inflammation

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As the guardian of our health, the immune system has to sense and react to pathogens to eliminate them, but not so fiercely as to over-inflame and damage tissue. The need for this balance is most apparent in the gut - which is continually under threat from bacteria like Salmonella that could be lurking in the food and drink that we ingest.

 The researchers say they now have a much better idea of how neurons and macrophages in the gut work together to help prevent damage from inflammation.
 
Now, a new study - by researchers at Rockefeller University, New York, NY, and published in Cell - shows that neurons in the gut appear to work with cells of the immune system to fine-tune this balance and prevent over-inflammation of intestinal tissue.

Senior author Daniel Mucida, an assistant professor and head of Rockefeller's mucosal immunology lab, says:
"Resistance to infections needs to be coupled with tolerance to the delicacy of the system. Our work identifies a mechanism by which neurons work with immune cells to help intestinal tissue respond to perturbations without going too far."

 He and his colleagues believe their findings could help develop new treatments for gastrointestinal diseases, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

Prof. Mucida explains that the lining of the human gut - known as the human intestinal mucosae - has a total surface area of about 300 m² and is the largest surface of the body that is exposed to potential pathogens from the environment. The gut absorbs around 100 g of dietary proteins a day and is home to around 100 trillion "friendly" bacteria.

To maintain immune protection over such a large area, there are more white blood cells in the gut than in the whole of the rest of the human body.

The study concerns itself with two types of large white blood cell known as macrophages: lamina propria macrophages (found close to the lining of the gut and thus close to the food as it is digested) and muscularis macrophages (found in much deeper-sited tissue, further away from food as it digests).

Muscularis macrophages 'almost hug the neurons'

Using a 3D imaging system, the researchers looked for differences in the cell structures of the two types of macrophage. As well as noticing differences in the structure and movement of the cells, the team found they surround neurons in the gut wall.

With the help of "transcriptional profiling tools," the researchers also found the different types of macrophage had different groups of genes switched on and off - they had different gene expression profiles - in the presence of an infection.

The lamina propria macrophages appeared to express more pro-inflammatory genes, while the muscularis macrophages favored anti-inflammatory genes.

Prof. Mucida says they wanted to know what was telling the macrophage genes to have these different responses to infection and explains:
"We came to the conclusion that one of the main signals seems to come from neurons, which appear in our imaging to almost be hugged by the muscularis macrophages."


In further tests, the team found that receptors on the surface of the muscularis macrophages respond to norepinephrine, a signaling chemical or neurotransmitter that is released by neurons. They suggest this be could a route through which gut neurons control inflammation.

The team also found the muscularis macrophages are activated much faster via the neuron route than when summoned by other immune cells. They suggest this is how the cells are able to respond to infection very quickly - within 1 or 2 hours - despite being deeply embedded in the gut wall and far away from the source of infection.

Prof. Mucida says they now have a much better idea of how neurons and macrophages in the gut work together to help prevent damage from inflammation, and he concludes:

"It's plausible that a severe infection could disrupt this pathway, leading to the tissue damage and permanent gastrointestinal changes that are seen in diseases like irritable bowel syndrome. These findings could be harnessed in the future to develop treatments for such diseases."

New studies are also uncovering that the friendly bacteria that live in and on our bodies help regulate immunity. For instance, Medical News Today recently learned of a study that shows how - once considered as sterile - the lungs are home to bacteria that help regulate the immune system through interaction with specialized cells called dendritic cells.

Key defence protein may cause cancer

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A protein that usually fights viral infections may also cause cancer by taking advantage of a weakness in DNA replication process to induce mutations in our genome, a new study has found.

Cancer is caused by the growth of an abnormal cell which harbours DNA mutations, ‘copy errors’ occurring during the DNA replication process.

If these errors do take place quite regularly without having any damaging effect on the organism, some of them affect a specific part of the genome and cause the proliferation of the mutant cell, which then invades the organism, according to researchers from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) and Russian Academy of Sciences.

APOBEC, which usually functions as protecting agent against viral infection, is a useful, yet dangerous, intrinsic cellular protein. It has only the power of modifying single-stranded DNA – viral DNA being frequently single-stranded.

Our double-stranded human DNA should therefore not be altered. But researchers have observed that mutations induced by APOBEC can be found in many tumorous cells, throughout the genome.

Scientists have already brought the evidence that about 20 per cent of APOBEC mutations originate from an abnormality in the DNA, called ‘double-stranded breaks’ which leaves, for a period of time, a part of DNA in a single-stranded state. It is this particular moment that APOBEC targets to cause multiple mutations.

Researchers have now understood the mechanism governing the remaining 80 per cent of APOBEC-related mutations.

During the cell division process, the DNA must be replicated according a precise process and timing to produce two identical copies from the original DNA. The replication begins at a specific location.

The separation of the two original strands and the synthesis of the new ones then result in a replication fork – the new strands are rebuilt as the fork moves along the chromosome, researchers said.

During DNA replication, the two strands are replicated by different mechanisms which depend on the direction of the replication fork. If one of the two strands is constructed right away, the second one cannot be reconstructed as quickly.

As a result, one strand, the ‘leading strand’, never exists as single-stranded DNA, whereas the other one, the ‘lagging strand’, remains single-stranded for some time.

“We were able to identify the direction of the replication fork for about 20 per cent of the genome, and found twice as many mutations on the lagging strand, compared with the leading strand,” said Sergey Nikolaev from UNIGE.

With this discovery, scientists brought evidence that APOBEC takes advantage of the moment when the lagging strand remains single, therefore weaker.

The findings were published in the journal Genome Research.

Ten new genes linked to lupus discovered

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 Researchers led by a scientist have successfully identified 10 new genes associated with lupus- a debilitating chronic autoimmune disease where the body's immune system becomes unbalanced and attacks its own tissues.

They analysed more than 17,000 human DNA samples collected from blood gathered from volunteers in four countries - South Korea, China, Malaysia and Japan.

Of those samples, nearly 4,500 had confirmed cases of lupus, while the rest  served as healthy controls for the research.

From the analysis, researchers identified 10 distinct DNA sequence variants linked to lupus. 

It can result in damage to many different body systems, including the joints, skin, kidneys, heart and lungs.

"We know lupus has a strong genetic basis, but in order to better treat the disease we have to identify those genes," said a researcher.

One gene in particular, known as GTF2I, showed a high likelihood of being involved in the development of lupus, researchers said.

"Its genetic effect appears to be higher than previously known lupus genes discovered from Asians, and we surmise that it now may be the predominant gene involved in lupus," Nath said.

"These findings mark a significant advance in our knowledge base for lupus genes," said Judith James from OMRF. 

 "For every gene we identify, it brings us closer to uncovering the trigger for this puzzling disease," James said.

Understanding where and how the defects arise will allow scientists to develop more effective therapies specifically targeting those genes, researchers said.

The findings were published in the journal Nature Genetics.