PTSD Treatment Advancement Using MDMA and Psilocybin

 Post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD, touches millions of lives. It can follow combat, a car accident, an assault, a natural disaster, or the loss of a loved one. People living with it often describe a mind that will not let go of the worst moment of their life. Intrusive memories, nightmares, a constant sense of being on guard, and a tendency to avoid anything that brings the trauma back are all part of the picture. For decades, the medical options were limited. That is finally beginning to change, and two of the most talked about new approaches involve substances that many of us once associated only with the counterculture of the 1960s: MDMA, the active compound in what is commonly called ecstasy, and psilocybin, the active ingredient in so-called magic mushrooms.

These treatments are still experimental, and they are not available at your local pharmacy. But the research behind them has grown serious, careful, and increasingly promising. Here is a clear look at how they are thought to work, what the studies actually show, and where things stand today. 

Why New Treatments Are Needed 

For more than twenty years, only two medications have carried full approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration specifically for PTSD: the antidepressants sertraline, sold as Zoloft, and paroxetine, sold as Paxil. They help some people, but many patients see little benefit, and a significant number stop treatment because the relief is partial at best. Talk therapy can be powerful, yet some people find it almost impossible to revisit their trauma without becoming so overwhelmed that the sessions do more harm than good. This gap between need and effective treatment is exactly what researchers have been trying to close.

The Principle Behind MDMA-Assisted Therapy  

It helps to understand that MDMA is not being studied as a pill you take on your own to feel better. Instead, it is given a small number of times under close supervision, during long therapy sessions guided by trained professionals. The medicine is meant to open a door so that the real work of therapy can happen.

The brain science is fascinating. In a healthy response to fear, a small almond-shaped region called the amygdala raises the alarm, and other parts of the brain eventually calm it back down. In PTSD, that alarm system gets stuck in the on position. MDMA appears to gently turn down activity in the amygdala while strengthening the connection between the regions that store memories and the regions that help us reason and feel safe. At the same time, it floods the brain with serotonin, dopamine, and a bonding hormone called oxytocin. The result is what researchers describe as a window of tolerance. A person can finally bring the traumatic memory to mind, look at it honestly, and process it without being swept away by terror. 

Scientists believe two related processes are at work, known as fear extinction and memory reconsolidation. In plain terms, the brain gets a rare chance to take an old, frightening memory off the shelf and put it back with a calmer, less threatening emotional label attached. A detailed scientific review of these mechanisms is available here, and an earlier laboratory study showing how MDMA helps the brain unlearn fear can be read here.

How Psilocybin Works Differently 

Psilocybin, the compound found in certain mushrooms, takes a somewhat different route. Once in the body it acts on a particular serotonin receptor in the brain and temporarily loosens the rigid, well-worn patterns of thinking that trauma and depression tend to lock in place. Brain imaging suggests it briefly relaxes the networks that normally keep our sense of self fixed and inflexible, which may give a person the chance to see their experiences from a fresh perspective. Many researchers also believe psilocybin encourages neuroplasticity, the brain's natural ability to form new connections, almost as if it opens a short window during which healthier patterns can take root

What the Studies Show 

The strongest evidence so far comes from research on MDMA. Two large, carefully designed trials, known in the field as MAPP1 and MAPP2 and published in the respected journal Nature Medicine, tested MDMA combined with therapy against therapy with a placebo. The results drew worldwide attention. After just three medicine sessions, roughly two out of three participants no longer met the diagnostic criteria for PTSD at all. A broad scientific summary of the evidence found that MDMA produced unusually large reductions in PTSD symptoms, often after only two or three sessions, and you can review that analysis here.

 Psilocybin research for PTSD is younger but moving quickly. A Phase 2 study run across several sites in the United Kingdom gave a single dose of psilocybin to people with PTSD and tracked them carefully. The treatment was generally well tolerated, with side effects such as headache and nausea that mostly faded within a day, and the early signs pointed to meaningful and lasting improvement over twelve weeks. The published results are available here, and the company behind the study has shared a summary here. Larger trials are now underway. 

The Current State of Things 

This is where the story becomes more complicated, and it is important to be honest about it. Despite the encouraging results, no psychedelic medicine has yet been approved in the United States for treating PTSD. In August 2024, the FDA declined to approve MDMA-assisted therapy, asking the company involved to carry out at least one more study. Regulators raised real concerns. Because MDMA has such noticeable effects, it is hard to design a study in which neither the patient nor the therapist can guess who received the real medicine, and that makes the results harder to interpret. There were also questions about how some of the trials had been conducted. None of this erased the promising findings, but it did mean the bar for approval had not yet been met.

Momentum has continued to build all the same. Both MDMA for PTSD and psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression have received what the FDA calls Breakthrough Therapy designation, a status reserved for treatments that may offer a real advance over what already exists. In April 2026, the federal government signed an executive order directing roughly fifty million dollars toward expanded research and instructing agencies, including the Department of Veterans Affairs, to speed up the evaluation of these therapies and broaden access for eligible patients. Veterans groups, who have watched friends struggle for years, have been among the strongest voices calling for progress. Outside the United States, Australia took the notable step in 2023 of allowing psilocybin and MDMA to be prescribed under tightly controlled conditions. 

A Word of Caution and Hope 

It is worth repeating that these are not do-it-yourself remedies. The benefits seen in trials came from medicine used a handful of times alongside skilled therapists in a safe setting, never from casual or recreational use, which carries genuine risks. These compounds remain illegal outside of approved research in most places, and they are not suitable for everyone. 

Still, after decades with very few new options, the field of trauma treatment is moving in a direction that would have seemed unthinkable a generation ago. For the many people who have tried everything and still carry the weight of their worst memories, that shift represents something precious and rare: a reason for genuine hope. 

This article is for general information and is not medical advice. Anyone considering treatment for PTSD should speak with a qualified healthcare profess

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New Hope for PTSD Treatment: Psychoactive Drugs

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating condition that can linger for years after trauma. Unfortunately, standard treatments – such as talk therapy and antidepressant medications – leave a large share of patients with persistent symptoms. In recent years, scientists have turned to an unlikely source for a breakthrough: psychedelic drugs once known mainly for recreational use. In particular, MDMA (popularly called Ecstasy or Molly) and psilocybin (the active compound in “magic mushrooms”) are emerging as promising tools in treating PTSD.

This shift from club drugs to cutting-edge therapy is backed by a growing body of real scientific research and clinical trials around the world, especially in the United States, Canada, and Europe. Experts stress that these developments are early but significant – offering hope for better PTSD outcomes while also raising questions about safety and access. 

 

MDMA: From Club Drug to Clinical Breakthrough

MDMA is a synthetic psychoactive drug famous for its euphoric and empathetic effects. In a therapy setting, those same properties appear to help PTSD patients revisit and process traumatic memories with less fear and distress. Over the past decade, MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD has moved from small pilot studies to large-scale trials. Results have been striking. In 2021, a Phase 3 clinical trial sponsored by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) reported that 67% of participants who received MDMA-assisted therapy no longer met the diagnostic criteria for PTSD, compared with just 32% who received placebo plus therapy​. This was a landmark moment – the first-ever Phase 3 trial of a psychedelic therapy for PTSD – and it showed MDMA could dramatically reduce symptoms even in patients with severe, long-standing PTSD.

Those findings were not a one-off. In 2023, a larger confirmatory Phase 3 trial (the final step before potential approval) was completed with similarly positive outcomes. After a course of three day-long MDMA-assisted therapy sessions (spaced a few weeks apart) 71% of participants on MDMA no longer qualified as having PTSD, versus 48% in the placebo group​. In other words, patients who received MDMA in combination with intensive talk therapy were about twice as likely to experience remission of their PTSD symptoms compared to those undergoing therapy without MDMA. Notably, these benefits were still apparent at least 18 weeks after the treatment. Equally important, the trials found no serious adverse effects attributed to MDMA in the controlled therapeutic setting. Some temporary side effects did occur (such as mild increases in blood pressure or body temperature), but overall the treatment was considered safe with medical monitoring.

How does the therapy actually work? In an MDMA-assisted session, patients lie on a couch in a comfortable setting, often with two trained therapists present. After taking a controlled dose of MDMA, the patient typically enters an emotionally open state for several hours. During this time, the therapists guide them in revisiting traumatic memories, working through emotions and forming new, less fear-driven perspectives on the trauma. Patients often report that MDMA helps reduce their anxiety and defenses, allowing them to confront painful memories without being overwhelmed by panic. The drug can induce feelings of trust and compassion, which may strengthen the therapeutic alliance and help patients process experiences that were previously too painful to discuss. Crucially, MDMA is not a take-home medication – it is only given under supervision as part of a structured therapy process, with preparatory sessions beforehand and integration sessions afterward to help patients make sense of their insights.

Key Findings from MDMA 

Trials High Remission Rates: In Phase 3 studies, roughly 2/3 to 3/4 of PTSD patients who underwent MDMA-assisted psychotherapy no longer met PTSD diagnostic criteria at follow-up​. This is dramatically higher than typical remission rates from standard treatments (by contrast, conventional PTSD therapies succeed in perhaps 30–40% of cases). 

 

Lasting Improvements: Participants treated with MDMA showed not only immediate symptom relief but also sustained improvement weeks after the last session. Many reported better emotional regulation and functional recovery in their daily lives. 

 

Safety in Controlled Settings: When administered in clinical settings, MDMA did not produce any serious drug-related complications. There were no signs of addiction or neurotoxicity in the trials. Minor side effects (fatigue, jaw tightness, etc.) were transient. Careful screening and monitoring of patients helped mitigate risks such as temporary increases in heart rate or blood pressure.

Diverse Patient Benefit: These trials included people with PTSD from various causes – combat veterans, sexual assault survivors, and others – and showed benefits across demographics. Notably, the 2023 trial intentionally had a diverse sample (in age, race, and trauma type) to ensure the treatment works broadly, not just in a narrow group. 

 

Encouraged by this evidence, researchers and clinicians are optimistic that MDMA-assisted therapy could represent a major advancement in PTSD treatment. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted MDMA-assisted PTSD therapy a “Breakthrough Therapy” designation back in 2017 to fast-track its development​. After the recent Phase 3 successes, MAPS Public Benefit Corporation (the organization conducting these trials) prepared to seek formal FDA approval. If approved, MDMA could become the first psychedelic drug available by prescription for psychiatric treatment in the U.S., potentially as soon as within the next couple of years.

However, the road to medical acceptance is not entirely smooth. Regulators have maintained a cautious stance, emphasizing the need for rigorous proof. In mid-2024, an independent FDA advisory committee reviewed the MDMA/PTSD data and unexpectedly voted against immediate approval of the therapy, citing concerns about study methodologies and long-term safety monitoring. Some panel experts pointed to gaps in the data – for example, questions about whether patients might relapse after longer periods, or how to prevent misuse of the drug outside of therapy. There were also discussions about ensuring therapists are properly trained, after isolated reports of misconduct in earlier experimental sessions raised ethical flags​. Following the committee’s recommendation, the FDA did not approve MDMA in 2024, instead asking for more information. 

While this was a setback for advocates, it highlights the cautious approach authorities are taking. The consensus among scientists is that additional research will ultimately address these concerns. MAPS and other sponsors are now working on expanding trials and gathering further data, hopeful that approval is a matter of “when” rather than “if.” In the meantime, MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD is edging closer to mainstream acceptance, with many in the medical community already referring to it as a potential paradigm shift for trauma treatment.

Psilocybin: Magic Mushrooms  

 

 

Enter the Fray Psilocybin, the psychedelic compound found in certain mushrooms, has a longer history in Western consciousness – often associated with 1960s counterculture – but it too has reemerged in labs as a potent psychiatric tool. In the past few years, psilocybin therapy has shown remarkable benefits in clinical trials for depression and end-of-life anxiety. These successes are now spurring exploration of psilocybin-assisted therapy for PTSD. Could a mushroom trip, carefully guided by psychotherapists, help heal trauma? Early signs indicate it just might, though the research is at an earlier stage compared to MDMA.

Scientists theorize that psilocybin’s effects on the brain – boosting neural connectivity, dampening overactive fear circuits, and inducing profound shifts in perspective – could address core aspects of PTSD. During a psilocybin session, patients often experience a vivid, introspective journey that can include visual hallucinations and intense emotions. In therapeutic settings, this “psychedelic trip” is not just mind-expanding for its own sake; it’s paired with psychotherapy to help the individual reconceptualize their trauma. Patients often report experiencing new insights about their life, feeling a release of long-held grief or fear, and gaining a sense of meaning or connection that was lost due to trauma. These kinds of transformative psychological experiences might break the vicious cycle of intrusive memories, hypervigilance, and emotional numbness that define PTSD.

Formal clinical trials specifically testing psilocybin for PTSD are now underway. In 2023, researchers at Ohio State University launched what is believed to be the first U.S. clinical trial of psilocybin-assisted therapy in military veterans with PTSD. This pilot study will administer controlled doses of psilocybin to veterans in combination with psychotherapy, aiming to assess safety and whether it improves PTSD symptoms. While results from this trial are still pending, its very existence underscores the growing interest in psilocybin’s therapeutic potential for trauma. It’s worth noting that, as of now, no large-scale randomized trial of psilocybin for PTSD has been completed or published. That means psilocybin’s evidence base for PTSD is less developed than MDMA’s. Researchers are essentially extrapolating from adjacent findings – and those findings are encouraging.

One clue that psilocybin could help PTSD comes from a small 2020 study in San Francisco, which looked at psilocybin-assisted group therapy in a group of 18 older men who were long-term AIDS survivors​. Many of these men had experienced trauma and loss during the AIDS epidemic and were suffering from demoralization (a state of hopelessness often accompanied by PTSD-like symptoms). In the open-label pilot, participants took a moderate dose of psilocybin in a group therapy setting. The study found the approach to be feasible and safe, and the men showed reductions in trauma-related distress scores after the treatment. Though only a few of the participants had formal PTSD diagnoses, those who did reported a decline in their PTSD symptom severity in the months following the psilocybin sessions. This was a small exploratory study, but it hinted that psilocybin could be applied to trauma-related conditions and not just depression. It also demonstrated an interesting model – group therapy – which could make psychedelic treatment more accessible and affordable if proven effective.

There is also emerging preclinical evidence supporting psilocybin for PTSD. In 2024, a study by neuroscientists at Cornell University showed that psilocybin dramatically enhanced “fear extinction” in mice​. Fear extinction is the process underlying exposure therapy, where a conditioned fear response is gradually diminished by repeated safe exposure to the feared cues. In the experiment, mice given psilocybin were better at letting go of fearful reactions and did not as easily re-trigger those fears later, compared to mice not given the drug. Interestingly, the effect only worked when psilocybin was administered concurrently with the extinction training – suggesting that the drug by itself isn’t a magic eraser of fear, but it can boost the therapeutic learning that happens during exposure therapy​. This finding aligns with what we see in therapy: psychedelics seem to act as catalysts for psychological processes, rather than as standalone cures. The mouse study’s authors concluded that their data “provide preclinical evidence to support investigating psilocybin as a pharmacological adjunct for ... therapy for PTSD.”

Of course, what works in mice doesn’t always translate to humans, but such studies give a mechanistic rationale for why psilocybin-assisted therapy might help people recover from trauma.

Currently, several clinical trials are in the planning or recruiting stages to formally test psilocybin in PTSD patients​. Researchers in the U.S. and Europe are designing studies that will likely involve a few supervised psilocybin sessions combined with psychotherapeutic support, similar to the model used for depression trials. The focus will be on safety (ensuring vulnerable PTSD patients handle the psychedelic experience without adverse psychiatric events) and efficacy (measuring reductions in standard PTSD symptom scales in the weeks and months after treatment). It will likely be a couple of years before these studies report results. If those results are positive, psilocybin could follow a trajectory akin to MDMA’s – progressing into larger trials, potentially receiving special regulatory designations to speed development, and eventually seeking approval as a treatment for PTSD.

It’s important to emphasize that psilocybin, like MDMA, is not simply about “drugging away” the memories of trauma. The therapeutic context is key. Experts describe psilocybin treatment as an active collaboration between the medicine and therapy. Patients often engage in intensive therapy sessions before a psilocybin experience to set intentions and build trust with their providers. The psilocybin session itself can last 6 to 8 hours, during which patients might confront deep personal issues (with therapists guiding them through emotional turbulence). Follow-up integration therapy helps translate the often abstract or symbolic journey into concrete changes in outlook and behavior. In essence, the drug opens a window of mental flexibility and emotional release, and therapy helps the patient make constructive use of that window for healing. This synergy is why professionals refer to it as psilocybin-assisted therapy rather than just psilocybin drug treatment.

Global Momentum in Western Countries 

While research into MDMA and psilocybin for PTSD is happening around the world, the Western nations have led much of the recent progress. The United States has been at the forefront, with organizations like MAPS coordinating multi-site trials across North America and Israel. American universities (from California to Maryland) have opened dedicated psychedelic research centers, and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs is closely watching (and in some cases participating in) studies to address PTSD in combat veterans​. Although U.S. federal law still classifies both MDMA and psilocybin as Schedule I substances (illegal drugs with no accepted medical use), the FDA has been willing to allow and even facilitate clinical trials under strict protocols. As noted, the FDA gave Breakthrough Therapy status to MDMA-assisted PTSD therapy, recognizing its potential to outperform existing treatments​. More recently, the agency has also designated psilocybin as a breakthrough therapy for major depression, which, while a separate indication, underscores a regulatory openness to psychedelics. As of early 2025, MDMA-assisted therapy is on the cusp of FDA approval pending further evidence, and if it clears that bar, it could pave the way for psilocybin to follow in subsequent years.

Canada is also embracing the psychedelic therapy renaissance, albeit in a controlled manner. Health Canada has approved numerous clinical trials involving MDMA or psilocybin for mental health conditions, including PTSD research collaborations with MAPS. In 2020, Canadian authorities granted a handful of compassionate-use exemptions that allowed PTSD patients and others with serious conditions to receive psilocybin-assisted therapy outside of trials – the first such exemptions in decades. In 2022, Canada’s federal government took a further step by resuming its Special Access Program for psychedelics. This program lets doctors apply for permission to use an otherwise illegal drug like MDMA or psilocybin when conventional treatments have failed and a clinical trial is not available. Through this pathway, a small number of Canadian patients with PTSD (often veterans or first responders) have been able to legally undergo psychedelic therapy in the past couple of years. The Canadian medical community, including nonprofits and some veterans’ groups, has been actively lobbying for expanded access. In late 2023, a Senate subcommittee on veterans’ affairs released a report titled “The Time is Now,” urging the government to fund large-scale research into psychedelic-assisted therapy for PTSD and to make these treatments more accessible to veterans in need. This indicates a high-level recognition in Canada of the promise that MDMA and psilocybin hold for addressing the mental health crisis among trauma survivors​.

Across Europe, interest in MDMA and psilocybin for PTSD is growing, though policy changes have been slower. Several European research teams have collaborated in the international trials (for instance, clinical sites in Spain and Israel contributed patients to the MAPS studies). The European Medicines Agency has not yet formally evaluated MDMA or psilocybin therapy for approval, but it is monitoring the ongoing trial data. Countries like the United Kingdom have launched their own research initiatives: Imperial College London and King’s College London have been leaders in psychedelic science, primarily focusing on depression but laying the groundwork for PTSD applications.

In 2023, Britain’s Parliament published a scientific briefing acknowledging that “hundreds of participants” have been studied in psychedelic therapy trials for PTSD with promising results – but also noting that more large trials are needed and that psychedelics should not yet be considered proven first-line treatments​. Continental Europe’s first dedicated PTSD psychedelic trials are expected to start soon; for example, researchers in the Netherlands have announced plans for an MDMA trial in Dutch veterans, and a team in France is exploring a psilocybin study for trauma-related depression. Public attitudes in Europe are cautiously warming. Whereas a decade ago psychedelics were mostly taboo, now conferences on psychedelic therapy draw participants from major European hospitals and universities. Still, regulatory agencies in Europe will likely wait for the final results of U.S. trials and an FDA decision before considering approval on their soil. In the meantime, Europe is carefully watching the North American experience.

One Western country broke the mold entirely: Australia made headlines as the first nation to officially recognize MDMA and psilocybin as medicines. In a surprise decision announced in February 2023, Australia’s Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) approved the controlled medical use of MDMA for PTSD and psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. As of July 2023, authorized psychiatrists in Australia can prescribe MDMA-assisted therapy to patients with PTSD, and psilocybin therapy for those with severe depression​. This regulatory leap, which came before FDA approval in the U.S., was based on the positive results emerging from clinical trials worldwide and the pressing need for better treatments. The TGA stressed that this is not a blanket legalization – the drugs are reclassified as Schedule 8 (controlled medicines) only for specific uses and only by specially approved physicians​. 

Essentially, Australia has rolled out a compassionate access scheme within a research framework, ensuring therapy is done in a “strictly controlled medical setting”​. By being first, Australia aims to both help patients sooner and gather real-world data about how these therapies perform outside of clinical trials. Early reports from Australian clinics (which started treating a small number of patients in late 2023) suggest cautious optimism, though scaling up access has been slow due to the limited number of authorized prescribers and the need for extensive psychotherapy resources. The Australian move is being closely watched by other countries as a potential model. If it succeeds in demonstrating safety and effectiveness on a larger scale, it could embolden regulators elsewhere to follow suit.

A Cautious Optimism 

The renaissance of MDMA and psilocybin in psychiatry represents a radical shift in how we think about treating PTSD. For patients who have often tried every available therapy – from antidepressants to exposure therapy – and still struggle daily with flashbacks, nightmares, and emotional numbness, the idea of finding relief in a few guided psychedelic sessions can sound nothing short of miraculous. The personal stories emerging from the trials are indeed powerful: survivors of war or abuse who say that, after MDMA-assisted therapy, they feel “the weight lifted” for the first time in decades, or individuals who, through a psilocybin journey, make peace with past trauma and rediscover joy. These narratives, paired with rigorous trial data, have begun to chip away at the stigma surrounding psychedelics.

However, experts maintain a careful optimism. Psychedelic therapy is not a magic wand. It requires an infrastructure of trained therapists, medical oversight, and aftercare that must be developed alongside any loosening of drug regulations. The experiences catalyzed by MDMA or psilocybin can be intense and emotionally challenging; without proper support, there’s a risk of adverse psychological reactions. Moreover, long-term outcomes still need study – for example, do the improvements from these therapies last for years, or will some patients need booster sessions? How do these treatments compare head-to-head with established PTSD therapies like trauma-focused CBT or EMDR in the long run? These questions are the subject of ongoing research.

There are also considerations of who gets access. Psychedelic therapies, at least initially, could be expensive and limited to specialized clinics. Advocates are pushing to ensure equitable access for populations like veterans and first responders, who bear a heavy burden of PTSD. In the U.S., the Veterans Affairs healthcare system has begun training some of its clinicians in psychedelic-assisted therapy in anticipation of future approval, and some veteran nonprofits are already facilitating legal treatments in countries where it’s allowed. In Canada, as mentioned, lawmakers are actively discussing how to integrate psychedelics into mental health services. And in Europe, early dialogue is happening about regulating these therapies through healthcare systems if and when they are approved.

From a scientific standpoint, what’s striking is how quickly the field is evolving. Fifteen years ago, discussing MDMA or “mushrooms” as medicine for PTSD would have been unthinkable in mainstream psychiatry. Now, thanks to meticulous research, these substances are at the cutting edge of psychiatric innovation. The journey has involved unlikely alliances: grass-roots advocacy groups teaming up with top-tier academic institutions, and formerly skeptical regulators engaging with counterculture icons turned researchers. The result is a growing consensus that we may be on the verge of a paradigm shift in trauma therapy. If MDMA and psilocybin continue to prove their worth, future PTSD treatment might look very different – shorter in duration (a matter of sessions rather than years of pills), more holistic in approach (addressing emotional and spiritual healing, not just symptom control), and fundamentally rooted in the brain’s capacity to rewire and heal itself under the right conditions.

In summary, the recent global advancements in using MDMA and psilocybin for PTSD have transformed what was once a fringe idea into a legitimate area of medical science. The Western world, particularly the U.S., Canada, and parts of Europe, has driven this progress through high-quality research and a cautious loosening of regulations. Patients and clinicians alike are watching this space with hopeful eyes. For those suffering the invisible wounds of trauma, new treatments cannot come soon enough. And for science, the coming years will be critical to validate whether these psychedelic-assisted therapies can indeed fulfill their promise: turning harrowing journeys of the mind into pathways toward healing.

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